How does geography interest in space differentiate it from other disciplines?
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FactorsVariablesSocioeconomic statusIncomeOccupationEducationHousing valueFamily statusMarital statusFertilityFamily sizeAge of adultsEthnic statusBlack populationHispanic populationAsian populationLinguistic groups Show
The socioeconomic status factor is usually the strongest indicator of the various social areas in the city. Census tracts fall into high, medium, and low on the factor scores, and, as indicated earlier, these can be mapped. The socioeconomic factor, as indicated by factor scores for the census tracts, take on sectoral patterns, radiating away from the center of the city and expanding into the suburban areas. Thus, high-income sectors or wedges extend from the inner city into suburban space and medium-income sectors and low-income sectors have their own corresponding social spaces. Although factor analysis provides a quantitative index to the differentiated socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods, even a casual observer driving through the various neighborhoods in a city can see and experience the different socioeconomic levels. Such observations are usually based merely on housing indicators, such as the size and age of the house, lot size, and landscaping quality. The second factor identified in social area analysis is family status, sometimes termed the life-cycle stage or urbanization index. This factor largely measures the demographic characteristics of census tracts. From mapping factor scores, the family status factor displays a pattern of concentric circles. The third factor measures minority or ethnic status and is sometimes referred to as the segregation index. Here the social areas of the city are clumped into different racial, language, and accent groups and often on the basis of level of poverty and unemployment. Because these three identified factors are derived by the use of factor analysis, the three factors are independent of one another. It is the composite of these three factors that gives rise to the social structure of the city. View chapterPurchase book Read full chapter URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123693985002772 Space and Social Theory in GeographyB. Warf, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 Geography's intersections with social theory and political economy in the late twentieth century decisively reoriented the field around several postpositivist epistemologies. Marxist political economy contributed to a wide-ranging historicization of the field, emphasizing the centrality of production, labor, class, struggle, and the state as they pertained to the spatial division of labor and the persistence of uneven development at various scales. Humanistic perspectives, particularly phenomenology, injected an understanding of the human subject in its experiential, psychological, and ideological complexity, infusing the discipline with an appreciation of the contingency of social life. Structuration theory fused these macro and micro levels, suturing daily life to larger webs of material and social worlds, a view buttressed by realism. Feminism underscored the centrality of gender in all of these domains. Under postmodernism, geography acquired a sustained concern for the opaqueness of language, the complexity of social narratives, and the politics of discourse. Contemporary concerns stress the nature of discourse, representation, and identity at levels ranging from the individual to global manifestations of orientalism. Central to all of these perspectives is a respect for difference and the political origins and consequences of knowledge. Social theory—itself increasingly spatialized by its encounter with geography—has transformed geography from a passive recipient of innovative conceptions into an active generator. View chapterPurchase book Read full chapter URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767024980 Epidemiological Distribution of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Using Geographical Information SystemParissa Farnia, ... Ali Akbar Velayati, in Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM), 2019 Clinical Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Reported From AmericaThe America study data collected from four countries: Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and United States. The geographical distribution of Northern and Southern America is shown in Fig. 10.17 by the higher frequency of species. In general, in America 44,507 NTM have been reported from clinical samples. The highest prevalence of NTM is in Canada with (37,835/44,510; 85%), followed by Unites states (5324/44,510; 11.96%), Brazil (1316/44,510; 2.95%), and Argentina (35/44,510; 0.07%).  Figure 10.17. The distribution of nontuberculous mycobacteria species from clinical samples identified in (A) Northern and (B) Southern America. M. avium complex (18,816/44,510; 42.27%), M. xenopi (3647/44,510; 8.19%), M. gordonae (809/44,510; 1.81%), and M. kansasii (732/44,510; 1.64%) were the most frequent species among different regions in America (Table 10.25). Table 10.25 shows the data recorded for America by country, period of study, as well as the frequency of different species. Table 10.25. Species Distribution of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria From Clinical Samples in America SpeciesCountry (Reference) (Period)Argentina (Hoefsloot et al., 2013) (2008)Brazil (Mello et al., 2013) (1991–2011)Canada (Hernandez-Garduno et al., 2009; Marras et al., 2007; Al Houqani et al., 2011; Marras et al., 2017) (1990–2007)United States (Cassidy et al., 2009; Henkle et al., 2017; Ford et al., 2017) (1998–2012)Total AmericaM. avium complex683515,2902685(18,816/44,510; 42.27%)M. avium11235(246/44,510; 0.55%)M. gordonae4106699(809/44,510; 1.81%)M. xenopi8359841(3647/44,510; 8.19%)M. intracellulare6128(134/44,510; 0.30%)M. fortuitum group10(10/44,510; 0.022%)M. fortuitum/chelonae group16(16/44,510; 0.035%)M. fortuitum16434782(494/44,510; 1.10%)M. fortuitum complex53(53/44,510; 0.11%)M. fortuitum/peregrinum28(28/44,510; 0.06%)M. kansasii419644587(732/44,510; 1.64%)M. chelonae1482190(673/44,510; 1.51%)M. chelonae/M. abscessus92(92/44,510; 0.20%)M. abscessus23174(197/44,510; 0.44%)M. abscessus/massiliense44(44/44,510; 0.098%)M. lentiflavum166(67/44,510; 0.15%)M. sherrisii11(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. marinum/M. ulcerans5(5/44,510; 0.011%)M. ulcerans1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. marinum88(88/44,510; 0.19%)M. terrae18(9/44,510; 0.020%)M. terrae complex3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. peregrinum27(9/44,510; 0.020%)M. simiae123(24/44,510; 0.053%)M. simiae complex4(4/44,510; 0.008%)M. nonchromogenicum7(7/44,510; 0.015%)M. chimaera3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. interjectum4(4/44,510; 0.008%)M. arupense3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. celatum12(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. scrofulaceum6(6/44,510; 0.013%)M. szulgai117(18/44,510; 0.040%)M. mucogenicum/phocaicum12(12/44,510; 0.026%)M. mucogenicum21(21/44,510; 0.047%)M. genavense8(8/44,510; 0.017%)M. phlei2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. haemophilum12(12/44,510; 0.026%)M. florentinum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. nebraskense26(26/44,510; 0.058%)M. obuense10(10/44,510; 0.022%)M. doricum6(6/44,510; 0.013%)M. bovis20(20/44,510; 0.044%)M. kumamotonense2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. neoaurum11(11/44,510; 0.024%)M. aurum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. vaccae3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. elephantis1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. insubricum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. porcinum15(15/44,510; 0.033%)M. alvei2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. parascrofulaceum5(5/44,510; 0.011%)M. shimoidei2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. paraffinicum10(10/44,510; 0.022%)M. triplex3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. branderi2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. goodii15(15/44,510; 0.033%)M. cosmeticum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. heckeshornense10(10/44,510; 0.022%)M. frederiksbergense3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. hassiacum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. leprae6(6/44,510; 0.013%)M. lepraemurium1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. immunogenum7(7/44,510; 0.015%)M. gastri1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. ilatzerense3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. intermedium1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. seoulense1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. kyorinense1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. conceptionense2(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. aubagnense3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. bolletii7(7/44,510; 0.015%)M. brisbanense1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. septicum1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. senegalense1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. parmense1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. pulveris1(1/44,510; 0.002%)M. massiliense36(9/44,510; 0.020%)M. asiaticum11(2/44,510; 0.004%)M. mageritense3(3/44,510; 0.006%)M. smegmatis5(5/44,510; 0.011%)M. flavescens1(1/44,510; 0.002%)Other5917,673200(17,932/44,510; 40.28%)Unidentified1450(64/44,507; 0.14%)Total NTM35131637,8355324(44,510/44,510; 100%) View chapterPurchase book Read full chapter URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128146927000103 Social GeographyS. Bowlby, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 1 Introduction—When and WhatSocial geography emerged as a significant sub-discipline during the 1960s. Although earlier references to ‘social geography’ can be found, Johnston (1987) notes that it is barely mentioned in reviews of geography published in the 1950s. The development of the new sub-discipline was part of exciting theoretical and methodological change that geography experienced in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, vigorous theoretical debates led to a variety of conflicting approaches to research in social geography. By the early 1980s, the sub-discipline was of major importance within human geography. Indeed, a recent discussion of the area claimed that it became ‘virtually synonymous with the whole field of human geography’ (Johnston et al. 1994, p. 562). Nevertheless, the growing prominence of cultural geography towards the end of the 1980s and into the 1990s had a major impact on social geography. This was neatly symbolized by the decision of the ‘Social Geography Study Group’ of the Institute of British Geographers (which had been formed in the early 1970s) to change its title to ‘The Social and Cultural Geography Study Group’ in the 1990s. What is social geography and what do social geographers do? The rapid growth of the sub-discipline and the significant theoretical debates within it have involved shifts in its definition and practice. In 1965, Pahl suggested that it was about ‘the theoretical location of social groups and social characteristics, often within an urban setting’ (p. 82). In 1975, Emrys Jones argued that ‘social geography involves the understanding of the patterns which arise from the use social groups make of space as they see it, and of the processes involved in making and changing such patterns' (p. 7). The emphasis on social groups evident in Pahl's earlier definition remains of particular importance, in that what is held to make social geography ‘social’ is its concern not with individuals but with people as members of groups. However, there are some significant changes between the two definitions. First, Jones' definition introduces the idea that social processes produce spatial patterns and vice versa. This understanding of social geography remained dominant into the 1980s. Second, Jones' definition includes the phrase ‘the use social groups make of spaceas they see it’ (author's emphasis). This signals an increasing interest in people's subjective experiences in specific places—an interest that has become increasingly prominent in research designs. The understanding of the scope and aims of social geography implied in Jones' definition endured until the mid-1980s when it came under increasing attack. These attacks and their implications for the development of social geography make better sense in the context of the account of the type of work that social geographers did from the 1960s to the mid 1980s, presented below. View chapterPurchase book Read full chapter URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767025833 Wireless Sensor Networks Enabling EcoinformaticsS.S. Iyengar, ... N. Balakrishnan, in Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2008 Location-Based ProtocolsMost sensing applications are inherently geography aware. Most of the routing protocols for sensor networks require location information for sensor nodes. Location information is needed in order to calculate the distance between two particular nodes so that energy consumption can be estimated. Location information can be utilized in routing for energy efficiency. For example, if the region from which data are collected is known, using the location of sensors, the query can be diffused only to that particular region which will eliminate the number of transmissions significantly. Geography and energy aware routingGeography and energy aware routing (GEAR) uses a geographically informed and energy-aware neighbor selection heuristic to route the packet toward the target region. The process of forwarding a packet toward the region involves choosing a neighbor that is closest to the destination among all the neighbors. Each node keeps an estimated cost and a learned cost of reaching the destination through its neighbors. The estimated cost is a combination of residual energy and distance to destination. The learned cost is a refinement of the estimated cost that accounts for routing around the holes in the network. The learned cost is propagated one hop back every time a packet reaches the destination so that the route setup for the next packet will be adjusted. When all the neighbors are away, GEAR chooses a neighbor that minimizes the cost value, which is computed as What makes geography different from other disciplines?What makes the scientific discipline of geography different from other science disciplines is its emphasis on space, place, and connection. The technology geographers and other scientists use to study the physical and cultural environments spatially and over time is with geospatial technology.
How does geography relate to other disciplines?Geography interacts with the subject in studying the distribution of exposed rocks, interaction with climate and human activities, economic prospects of the minerals and so on. Interaction between geology and geography leads to formation of the new branch of study called geomorphology, the study of landforms.
Why is geography known as the spatial discipline?Geography is described as a spatial science because it focuses is on "where" things are and why they occur there. Geographers seek to answer all or more than one of four basic questions when studying our environment. These relate to location, place, spatial pattern, and spatial interaction.
What is spatial discipline in geography?What Does Spatial Perspective Mean in Geography? Spatial perspective in geography involves looking at the connection between where things are located in the space on the Earth's surface and diverse factors such as environmental dynamics, human-societal issues, and environmental-societal interaction.
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