The tendency to focus only on information that supports your opinion is called the bias.
How Confirmation Bias WorksBy Iqra Noor, published June 10, 2020 Show
Take-home Messages
One of the early demonstrations of confirmation bias appeared in an experiment by Peter Watson (1960) in which the subjects were to find the experimenter’s rule for sequencing numbers. Its results showed that the subjects chose responses that supported their hypotheses while rejecting contradictory evidence, and even though their hypotheses were not correct, they became confident in them quickly (Gray, 2010, p. 356). Though such evidence of the confirmation bias has appeared in psychological literature throughout history, the term ‘confirmation bias’ was first used in a 1977 paper detailing an experimental study on the topic (Mynatt, Doherty, & Tweney, 1977).  Biased Search for Information This type of confirmation bias explains people’s search for evidence in a one-sided way to support their hypotheses or theories. Experiments have shown that people provide tests/questions that are designed to yield “yes” if their favored hypothesis was true, and ignore alternative hypotheses that are likely to give the same result. This is also known as congruence heuristic (Baron, 2000, p.162-64). Though the preference for affirmative questions itself may not be bias, there are experiments that have shown that congruence bias does exist. For Example: Biased Interpretation This type of bias explains that people interpret evidence with respect to their existing beliefs by typically evaluating confirming evidence differently than evidence that challenges their preconceptions. Various experiments have shown that people tend to not change their beliefs on complex issues even after being provided with research because of the way they interpret the evidence. Additionally, people accept “confirming” evidence more easily and critically evaluate the “disconfirming” evidence (this is known as disconfirmation bias) (Taber & Lodge, 2006). When provided with the same evidence, people’s interpretations could still be biased. For example: Biased Memory To confirm their current beliefs, people may remember/recall information selectively. Psychological theories vary in defining memory bias. Some theories state that information confirming prior beliefs is stored in the memory while contradictory evidence is not (i.e. Schema theory). Some others claim that striking information is remembered best (i.e. humor effect). Memory confirmation bias also serves a role in stereotype maintenance. Experiments have shown that mental association between expectancy-confirming information and the group label strongly affects recall and recognition memory. Though a certain stereotype about a social group might not be true for an individual, people tend to remember the stereotype-consistent information better than any disconfirming evidence (Fyock & Stangor, 1994). For example:
These experiments, along with others, have offered an insight into selective memory and provided evidence for biased memory, proving that one searches for and better remembers confirming evidence.
Social MediaSocial MediaInformation we are presented on media is not only reflective of what the users want to see but also of the designers’ beliefs and values. Today, people are exposed to an overwhelming number of news sources, each varying in their credibility. To form conclusions, people tend to read the news that aligns with their perspectives. For instance, new channels provide information (even the same news) differently from each other on complex issues (i.e. racism, political parties, etc.), with some using sensational headlines/pictures and one-sided information. Due to the biased coverage of topics, people only utilize certain channels/sites to obtain their information to make biased conclusions. Religious FaithReligious FaithPeople also tend to search for and interpret evidence with respect to their religious beliefs (if any). For instance, on the topics of abortion and transgender rights, people whose religions are against such things will interpret this information differently than others and will look for evidence to validate what they believe. Similarly, those who religiously reject the theory of evolution will either gather information disproving evolution or hold no official stance on the topic. Also, irreligious people might perceive events that are considered “miracles” and “test of faiths” by religious people to be a reinforcement of their lack of faith in a religion. Explanations of Confirmation BiasThere are several explanations as to why humans possess confirmation bias, including this tendency being an efficient way to process information, protect self-esteem, and minimize cognitive dissonance. Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Protect Self-esteemProtect Self-esteem
Minimize Cognitive DissonanceMinimize Cognitive Dissonance
Implications of Confirmation BiasConfirmation bias consistently shapes the way we look for and interpret information that influences our decisions in this society, ranging from homes to global platforms. This bias prevents people from gathering information objectively. PoliticsPoliticsDuring the election campaign, people tend to look for information confirming their perspectives on different candidates while ignoring any information contradictory to their views. This subjective manner of obtaining information can lead to overconfidence in a candidate and misinterpretation/overlook of important information, thus influences their voting decision and eventually country’s leadership (Cherry, 2020). Recruitment and SelectionRecruitment and SelectionConfirmation bias also affects employment diversity because preconceived ideas about different social groups can introduce discrimination (though it might be unconscious) and impact the recruitment process (Agarwal, 2018). Existing beliefs of a certain group being more competent than the other is the reason why particular races and gender are represented the most in companies today. This bias can hamper the company’s attempt at diversifying their employees. Mitigating Confirmation BiasChange in intrapersonal thought:Change in intrapersonal thought:To avoid being susceptible to confirmation bias, start questioning your research methods and sources used to obtain their information. Expanding the types of sources used in searching for information could provide different aspects on a particular topic and offer levels of credibility.
Alternative hypothesis:Alternative hypothesis:Confirmation bias occurs when people tend to look for information that is confirming their beliefs/hypothesis, but this bias can be reduced by taking into alternative hypotheses and their consequences. Considering the possibility of beliefs/hypotheses other than one’s own could help you gather information in a more dynamic manner (rather than one-sided way). Related Cognitive Biases
Backfire EffectBackfire EffectBackfire effect occurs when people’s preexisting beliefs strengthen when challenged by contradictory evidence (Silverman, 2011).
One piece of disconfirming evidence does not result in a change in people’s views, but a constant flow of credible refutations could correct misinformation/misconceptions. This effect is considered a subtype of confirmation bias because it explains people’s reactions to new information based on their preexisting hypotheses. For example:
Halo EffectHalo EffectThe halo effect occurs when people use impressions from a single trait to form conclusions about other unrelated attributes. It is heavily influenced by the first impression. Research on this effect was pioneered by American psychologist Edward Thorndike who in 1920 described ways officers rated their soldiers on different traits based on first impression (Neugaard, 2019). Experiments have shown that when positive attributes are presented first, a person is judged more favorably than when negative traits are shown first. This is a subtype of confirmation bias because it allows us to structure our thinking about other information using only initial evidence. About the AuthorIqra Noor is a member of the Class of 2023 at Harvard University. She is on a premedical track studying Neuroscience and Linguistics with a minor in Global Health and Health Policy. On campus, Iqra is involved with cultural, advocacy, and tutoring organizations. How to reference this article:How to reference this article:Noor, I. (2020, June 10). Confirmation bias. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/confirmation-bias.html ReferencesAgarwal, P., Dr. (2018, October 19). Here Is How Bias Can Affect Recruitment In Your Organisation. https://www.forbes.com/sites/pragyaagarwaleurope/2018/10/19/how-can-bias-during-interviewsaffect-recruitment-in-your-organisation American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/confirmation-bias Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and Deciding (Third ed.). Cambridge University Press. Casad, B. (2019, October 09). Confirmation bias. https://www.britannica.com/science/confirmation-bias Cherry, K. (2020, February 19). Why Do We Favor Information That Confirms Our Existing Beliefs? https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-confirmation-bias-2795024 Fyock, J., & Stangor, C. (1994). The role of memory biases in stereotype maintenance. The British journal of social psychology, 33(3), 331–343. Gray, P. O. (2010). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers. Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(11), 2098–2109. Mynatt, C. R., Doherty, M. E., & Tweney, R. D. (1977). Confirmation bias in a simulated research environment: An experimental study of scientific inference. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29(1), 85-95. Neugaard, B. (2019, October 09). Halo effect. https://www.britannica.com/science/halo-effect Silverman, C. (2011, June 17). The Backfire Effect. https://archives.cjr.org/behind_the_news/the_backfire_effect.php Snyder, M., & Cantor, N. (1979). Testing hypotheses about other people: The use of historical knowledge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15(4), 330–342. How to reference this article:How to reference this article:Noor, I. (2020, June 10). Confirmation bias. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/confirmation-bias.html Home | About Us | Privacy Policy | Advertise | Contact Us Simply Psychology's content is for informational and educational purposes only. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. © Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved Is the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use?Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used. The concept of functional fixedness originated in Gestalt psychology, a movement in psychology that emphasizes holistic processing.
What does the prototype model of concepts emphasize?What does the prototype model of concepts emphasize? That when people evaluate whether an item reflects a concept, they compare the item with the most typical item in that category.
What refers to a language's rules for word formation?grammarThe set of rules a language obeys for creating words and sentences.
Is a learning disability characterized by difficulty with learning?Learning disability: A childhood disorder characterized by difficulty with certain skills such as reading or writing in individuals with normal intelligence. Learning disabilities affect the ability to interpret what one sees and hears or the ability to link information from different parts of the brain.
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